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Predicting potentially abusive clauses in Chilean terms of services with natural language processing
Indexado
WoS WOS:001484407100001
Scopus SCOPUS_ID:105005417244
DOI 10.1007/S10506-025-09462-W
Año 2025
Tipo artículo de investigación

Citas Totales

Autores Afiliación Chile

Instituciones Chile

% Participación
Internacional

Autores
Afiliación Extranjera

Instituciones
Extranjeras


Abstract



This study addresses the growing concern about the inclusion of abusive clauses in consumer contracts, exacerbated by the proliferation of online services with complex Terms of Service that are rarely read. Even though research on automatic analysis methods is conducted, the difficulty of detecting such clauses is aggravated by the general focus on English-language Machine Learning approaches and on major jurisdictions, such as the European Union. We introduce a new methodology and a substantial Spanish-language dataset addressing this gap. We propose a novel annotation scheme with four categories and 20 classes and apply it to 50 online Terms of Service used in Chile. Our evaluation of transformer-based models highlights how factors like language- and/or domain-specific pre-training, few-shot sample size, and model architecture affect the detection and classification of potentially abusive clauses. Results show a large variability in performance for the different tasks and models, with the highest macro-F1 scores for the detection task ranging from 79% to 89% and micro-F1 scores up to 96%, while macro-F1 scores for the classification task range from 60% to 70% and micro-F1 scores from 64% to 80%. Notably, this is the first Spanish-language multi-label classification dataset for legal clauses, applying Chilean law and offering a comprehensive evaluation of Spanish-language models in the legal domain. Our work lays the ground for future research in method development for rarely considered legal analysis and potentially leads to practical applications to support consumers in Chile and Latin America as a whole.

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Disciplinas de Investigación



WOS
Law
Computer Science, Interdisciplinary Applications
Computer Science, Artificial Intelligence
Scopus
Sin Disciplinas
SciELO
Sin Disciplinas

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Publicaciones WoS (Ediciones: ISSHP, ISTP, AHCI, SSCI, SCI), Scopus, SciELO Chile.

Colaboración Institucional



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Autores - Afiliación



Ord. Autor Género Institución - País
1 Loffler, Christoffer - Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso - Chile
2 Freile, Andrea Martinez - Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez - Chile
3 Pizarro, Tomas Rey - Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez - Chile

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Financiamiento



Fuente
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso
Vice Rector's Office for Research, Creation and Innovation

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Agradecimientos



Agradecimiento
Partial financial support was received from Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Valparaiso, Vice Rector's Office for Research, Creation and Innovation within the programs "DI Iniciacion" (039.485/2024) and "Semilla 2023" (039.247).
Partial financial support was received from Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00F3lica de Valpara\u00EDso, Vice Rector\u2019s Office for Research, Creation and Innovation within the programs \u201DDI Iniciaci\u00F3n\u201D (039.485/2024) and \u201DSemilla 2023\u201D (039.247).

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